Golf courses are one of the most sought-after recreational spaces for both professionals and amateurs alike. But have you ever wondered who designs and builds these immaculate golf courses that we see today? The answer is landscape architects. Landscape architects are the creative minds behind many of the world’s most iconic golf courses. They are responsible for designing and building these courses, ensuring that they are not only visually appealing but also functional and sustainable. In this article, we will explore the role of landscape architects in designing and building golf courses, and how they transform ordinary pieces of land into extraordinary golfing destinations.

Understanding Golf Course Architecture

The Art and Science of Designing Golf Courses

Designing a golf course is both an art and a science. It requires a deep understanding of the game of golf, as well as the principles of landscape architecture. The design process involves a careful balance of aesthetics, functionality, and sustainability.

The art of designing golf courses is all about creating a unique and memorable experience for golfers. It requires a creative and imaginative approach, as well as a keen eye for detail. Golf course architects must consider the natural landscape, the topography, and the existing vegetation when designing a course. They must also take into account the preferences and expectations of the client, as well as the needs and abilities of the target audience.

The science of designing golf courses involves a deep understanding of the principles of golf course architecture. This includes the layout of the course, the placement of hazards and other features, and the use of turfgrass and other plant materials. Golf course architects must also consider the environmental impact of their designs, including the use of water and other resources, as well as the potential for erosion and other environmental issues.

In addition to artistic and scientific skills, golf course architects must also have strong communication and project management skills. They must be able to work closely with clients, contractors, and other stakeholders to ensure that the project is completed on time and within budget. They must also be able to manage the design process, from initial concept to final construction, and coordinate with other professionals, such as engineers and builders.

Overall, designing and building golf courses is a complex and challenging task that requires a combination of artistic, scientific, and practical skills. It is a process that demands creativity, attention to detail, and a deep understanding of the game of golf, as well as the principles of landscape architecture.

Key Principles of Golf Course Architecture

Designing and building golf courses requires a deep understanding of the principles that govern the architecture of these facilities. The following are some of the key principles of golf course architecture that landscape architects need to understand:

• Diversity: Golf courses should offer a diverse range of holes that challenge golfers of all skill levels. This requires designers to create a mix of par-3s, par-4s, and par-5s, as well as left-hand and right-hand holes.
• Strategy: Golf courses should encourage strategic play by providing multiple routes to the green and rewarding clever play. This requires designers to create features such as bunkers, water hazards, and tree placement that force golfers to make strategic decisions.
• Aesthetics: Golf courses should be visually appealing and blend seamlessly into their surroundings. This requires designers to consider factors such as color, texture, and scale when selecting materials and planting.
• Variability: Golf courses should offer a variety of shot opportunities and challenges. This requires designers to create holes that are not only long but also require accuracy and precision.
• Playability: Golf courses should be designed to accommodate golfers of all skill levels. This requires designers to create holes that are not too difficult or too easy, with fairways that are wide enough to allow for recovery from errant shots.
• Sustainability: Golf courses should be designed and built in a sustainable manner that minimizes environmental impact. This requires designers to consider factors such as water usage, habitat preservation, and energy efficiency.

Understanding these key principles of golf course architecture is essential for landscape architects who are tasked with designing and building golf courses. By considering these principles, designers can create courses that are not only visually appealing but also challenging, strategic, and sustainable.

The Role of Landscape Architects in Golf Course Design

Skills and Expertise of Landscape Architects

Landscape architects play a crucial role in the design and construction of golf courses. They possess a unique combination of skills and expertise that enables them to create courses that are both visually appealing and functional. Some of the key skills and expertise of landscape architects in golf course design include:

• Site Analysis: Landscape architects have the ability to analyze and understand the site conditions of a potential golf course location. They consider factors such as topography, soil composition, water table, vegetation, and drainage to determine the best layout for the course.
• Golf Course Architecture: Landscape architects have a deep understanding of golf course architecture and design principles. They can create courses that challenge players of all skill levels while still being fair and enjoyable. They also understand the importance of strategic placement of hazards, bunkers, and other features to enhance the overall playing experience.
• Environmental Sustainability: Landscape architects are trained to design golf courses that are environmentally sustainable. They consider the impact of the course on the surrounding ecosystem and incorporate features such as native vegetation, wetlands, and wildlife habitats to minimize the environmental footprint of the course.
• Aesthetic Design: Landscape architects have an artistic eye and can create visually stunning golf courses that complement the natural beauty of the surrounding landscape. They use a variety of techniques such as planting, grading, and water features to create an aesthetically pleasing golf course that enhances the overall player experience.
• Project Management: Landscape architects have strong project management skills and can oversee the construction of a golf course from start to finish. They work closely with contractors, engineers, and other stakeholders to ensure that the course is built to the highest standards of quality and functionality.

Overall, the skills and expertise of landscape architects in golf course design are essential for creating courses that are both challenging and enjoyable for players while also being environmentally sustainable and visually appealing.

Collaboration with Other Professionals

Golf course design is a complex process that requires the coordination of various professionals, including landscape architects, golf course architects, engineers, and horticulturists. Collaboration between these professionals is crucial to the success of a golf course project. In this section, we will discuss the importance of collaboration between landscape architects and other professionals in golf course design.

Landscape architects play a vital role in the design of golf courses. They are responsible for creating the overall vision and aesthetic of the course, as well as ensuring that it is environmentally sustainable. They work closely with golf course architects to create a layout that is both visually appealing and functional. Engineers are also involved in the design process to ensure that the course is built to the proper specifications and can withstand the natural elements. Horticulturists are responsible for selecting and planting the appropriate vegetation for the course, as well as maintaining it throughout its lifespan.

Collaboration between landscape architects and other professionals is essential to the success of a golf course project. For example, engineers may suggest changes to the layout of the course that could impact the overall aesthetic. In this case, the landscape architect would work with the engineer to find a solution that meets both the functional and aesthetic requirements of the course. Similarly, horticulturists may suggest specific plant species that would thrive in the particular environment of the course. The landscape architect would then incorporate these suggestions into the design.

Effective collaboration between landscape architects and other professionals is critical to the success of a golf course project. By working together, these professionals can create a course that is both visually appealing and functional, while also being environmentally sustainable. In the following sections, we will explore the specific ways in which landscape architects collaborate with other professionals in the design and construction of golf courses.

The Design Process for Golf Courses

Site Analysis and Planning

The site analysis and planning phase is a crucial part of the design process for golf courses. Landscape architects conduct a thorough analysis of the site’s physical and environmental characteristics to determine the most suitable location for the golf course and to identify any potential challenges that may arise during the design and construction phases.

Physical characteristics of the site that are analyzed include the topography, soil conditions, and hydrology. The topography of the site determines the natural contours and elevation changes that will shape the golf course’s layout. Soil conditions are analyzed to determine the suitability of the site for golf course construction and to identify any potential issues with drainage or soil stability. Hydrology is analyzed to determine the site’s water table and the potential for flooding or erosion.

Environmental characteristics of the site that are analyzed include the ecology, vegetation, and wildlife. The ecology of the site is analyzed to identify any sensitive habitats or endangered species that may be impacted by the golf course development. Vegetation is analyzed to determine the existing plant communities and to identify opportunities for incorporating native plants into the golf course design. Wildlife is analyzed to identify potential impacts on the site’s wildlife and to develop strategies for mitigating those impacts.

Once the site analysis and planning phase is complete, the landscape architect will develop a conceptual design for the golf course that takes into account the site’s physical and environmental characteristics. This design will include the layout of the golf course, including the placement of tees, fairways, greens, and hazards, as well as the integration of natural features such as trees, wetlands, and streams. The design will also include strategies for managing stormwater, reducing erosion, and preserving habitat for wildlife.

Golf Course Features and Amenities

When designing a golf course, landscape architects must consider a variety of features and amenities that will enhance the overall experience for golfers. These features can include everything from water hazards and sand traps to clubhouses and restaurants.

Some of the key considerations for golf course features and amenities include:

• Driving Range: A driving range is a popular feature for golf courses, as it allows golfers to practice their swing before playing the course. Landscape architects must carefully design the driving range to ensure that it is safe and efficient for golfers to use.
• Putting Green: The putting green is a critical feature of any golf course, as it is where golfers will spend a significant amount of time during their round. Landscape architects must design the putting green to be both challenging and enjoyable for golfers of all skill levels.
• Water Hazards: Water hazards, such as lakes and ponds, can add an extra level of challenge to a golf course. Landscape architects must carefully design these features to ensure that they are both visually appealing and safe for golfers.
• Sand Traps: Sand traps, also known as bunkers, are another challenging feature of a golf course. Landscape architects must design these features to be difficult to get out of, while still allowing golfers to have a fair chance of escaping.
• Clubhouses and Restaurants: A well-designed clubhouse and restaurant can be a major draw for golfers. Landscape architects must work closely with other design professionals to create a comfortable and welcoming space that complements the golf course.

Overall, the design of golf course features and amenities is a critical aspect of the design process for landscape architects. By carefully considering the needs and desires of golfers, landscape architects can create courses that are both challenging and enjoyable to play.

Integrating Sustainable Practices

When designing and building golf courses, landscape architects play a crucial role in integrating sustainable practices. This not only helps to minimize the environmental impact of the course, but also creates a more resilient and low-maintenance golf course that can be enjoyed by players for years to come. Here are some of the ways that landscape architects can integrate sustainable practices into the design of golf courses:

1. Site Selection and Assessment

The first step in integrating sustainable practices into the design of a golf course is to carefully select and assess the site. Landscape architects will consider factors such as the natural topography, soil conditions, and existing vegetation to determine the best location for the course. They will also assess the potential impact of the course on the surrounding ecosystem, including wetlands, streams, and wildlife habitats.

1. Soil Management

Soil management is an important aspect of sustainable golf course design. Landscape architects will work to maintain and enhance the natural soil conditions of the site, rather than importing new soil. They will also use techniques such as contouring and terracing to minimize soil erosion and maximize water retention.

1. Water Management

Water management is another key component of sustainable golf course design. Landscape architects will design the course to make the most of natural rainfall, rather than relying on irrigation systems. They will also incorporate features such as ponds, wetlands, and swales to manage stormwater runoff and prevent erosion.

1. Plant Selection and Management

The choice of plants is an important factor in the sustainability of a golf course. Landscape architects will select native and adaptive plants that are well-suited to the local climate and soil conditions. They will also consider the maintenance requirements of the plants, choosing those that are low-maintenance and require minimal chemical inputs.

1. Energy and Material Use

Finally, landscape architects will consider the energy and material use of the golf course in the design process. They will incorporate features such as solar panels and wind turbines to provide renewable energy for the course. They will also use sustainable materials such as recycled concrete and native stone in the construction of the course.

Overall, integrating sustainable practices into the design of golf courses is an important aspect of the work of landscape architects. By carefully selecting and assessing sites, managing soil and water, choosing low-maintenance plants, and incorporating renewable energy and sustainable materials, landscape architects can create golf courses that are both environmentally responsible and enjoyable for players.

Obtaining Permits and Approvals

The process of designing and building a golf course involves several steps, one of which is obtaining permits and approvals. Landscape architects play a crucial role in this process, as they are responsible for ensuring that the golf course design complies with local regulations and environmental standards.

To obtain the necessary permits and approvals, landscape architects must work closely with local authorities, such as city planners and zoning boards. They must also conduct environmental impact assessments to determine the potential effects of the golf course on the surrounding ecosystem.

In addition to obtaining permits and approvals, landscape architects must also comply with various regulations, such as the Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act. These regulations are designed to protect the environment and ensure that the golf course design does not negatively impact the surrounding ecosystem.

Overall, obtaining permits and approvals is a critical step in the design process for golf courses. Landscape architects must work closely with local authorities and comply with various regulations to ensure that the golf course design is environmentally sustainable and compliant with local laws and regulations.

Construction and Maintenance of Golf Courses

Working with Contractors and Builders

When it comes to the construction of golf courses, landscape architects must work closely with contractors and builders to ensure that the design is executed accurately and to the desired standard. This involves:

• Communicating the design vision: Landscape architects must be able to clearly communicate their design ideas to contractors and builders, so that they can understand the specific requirements of the project. This includes providing detailed drawings and plans, as well as discussing the design concepts in detail.
• Managing the construction process: Landscape architects must oversee the construction process to ensure that the design is being built according to plan. This involves regular site visits, monitoring progress, and making any necessary adjustments to the design as the construction progresses.
• Ensuring quality control: Landscape architects must maintain high standards of quality control throughout the construction process. This includes inspecting the work of contractors and builders to ensure that it meets the required standards, as well as testing and evaluating the materials used in the construction process.
• Working within budget constraints: Landscape architects must work with contractors and builders to ensure that the construction process stays within budget. This involves carefully managing costs, selecting cost-effective materials, and finding ways to optimize the construction process without compromising on quality.
• Coordinating with other professionals: Landscape architects must also work closely with other professionals involved in the construction process, such as engineers, architects, and environmental specialists. This involves coordinating the different aspects of the project, ensuring that everyone is working towards the same goals, and resolving any conflicts or issues that may arise.

Overall, working with contractors and builders is a crucial aspect of the construction process for landscape architects. By effectively managing this process, landscape architects can ensure that their designs are executed accurately and to the desired standard, resulting in high-quality golf courses that meet the needs of players and the environment.

Monitoring Progress and Quality Control

As the construction of a golf course progresses, it is crucial to monitor the progress and ensure that the course is built according to the design specifications. Landscape architects play a vital role in monitoring the progress of the construction and quality control to ensure that the golf course is built to the highest standards.

Some of the tasks that landscape architects perform during the monitoring and quality control phase include:

• Inspecting the construction site regularly to ensure that the work is proceeding according to the design specifications and that the materials being used are of the required quality.
• Checking that the drainage, irrigation, and other critical infrastructure systems are installed correctly and functioning as intended.
• Verifying that the grading and shaping of the land are correct and that the golf course’s topography is in line with the design plans.
• Ensuring that the construction process is not causing any environmental damage or impacting nearby ecosystems.
• Coordinating with the construction team to resolve any issues that arise during the construction process.

Landscape architects also play a crucial role in quality control by reviewing and approving all aspects of the construction process, from the quality of the materials used to the workmanship of the construction team. They also ensure that the golf course is built to meet all relevant regulations and standards, including environmental regulations and safety standards.

In addition to monitoring the construction process, landscape architects also oversee the maintenance of the golf course once it is completed. This includes monitoring the health and condition of the turf, trees, and other vegetation, as well as ensuring that the golf course’s infrastructure is maintained in good working order.

Overall, the monitoring and quality control phase is a critical part of the construction process for a golf course. Landscape architects play a vital role in ensuring that the course is built to the highest standards and that it meets all relevant regulations and standards. Their expertise and attention to detail help to ensure that the golf course is a high-quality, visually appealing, and functional facility that meets the needs of golfers and other users.

Long-Term Maintenance and Management

Landscape architects play a crucial role in the long-term maintenance and management of golf courses. Their expertise in designing and constructing golf courses equips them with the knowledge necessary to maintain the course’s aesthetic appeal, functionality, and environmental sustainability. This section will explore the various aspects of long-term maintenance and management that landscape architects are responsible for.

Grounds Maintenance

One of the primary responsibilities of landscape architects in long-term maintenance and management is grounds maintenance. This includes tasks such as mowing, fertilizing, aerating, and overseeing the health and appearance of the turfgrass. Landscape architects must take into account the specific grass varieties, soil conditions, and climate of the golf course to develop an effective maintenance plan.

Irrigation and Drainage Systems

Irrigation and drainage systems are critical components of golf course maintenance, and landscape architects are responsible for designing and managing these systems. They must ensure that the course receives adequate water, while also preventing waterlogging and protecting against drought. Landscape architects must also consider factors such as water quality, efficiency, and environmental impact when designing irrigation and drainage systems.

Pest and Disease Management

Landscape architects must also manage pests and diseases that can affect the health and appearance of golf course turfgrass. This may involve the use of chemical pesticides and fungicides, as well as integrated pest management strategies to minimize environmental impact. Landscape architects must stay up-to-date with the latest research and best practices in pest and disease management to maintain the health and beauty of the golf course.

Equipment and Maintenance Facilities

In addition to the natural elements of golf course maintenance, landscape architects must also design and manage the equipment and maintenance facilities necessary to keep the course in top condition. This includes designing storage areas for equipment, constructing maintenance buildings, and planning for the disposal of waste and debris. Landscape architects must ensure that these facilities are efficient, functional, and aesthetically pleasing, while also adhering to environmental regulations and sustainability principles.

Environmental Stewardship

Landscape architects play a critical role in environmental stewardship for golf courses. They must consider the impact of golf course maintenance on the local ecosystem, including soil erosion, water quality, and wildlife habitat. Landscape architects must also ensure that the golf course is designed and maintained in a way that is environmentally sustainable, using practices such as integrated pest management, water conservation, and the use of native plant species.

In conclusion, landscape architects play a vital role in the long-term maintenance and management of golf courses. Their expertise in designing and constructing golf courses, combined with their knowledge of maintenance and environmental stewardship, ensures that golf courses remain beautiful, functional, and sustainable for years to come.

Challenges and Opportunities for Landscape Architects in Golf Course Design

Balancing Aesthetics and Functionality

Golf course design requires landscape architects to balance the aesthetic and functional aspects of the course. While the primary objective of a golf course is to provide a challenging and enjoyable game for players, it is also important to create a visually appealing and harmonious environment that enhances the overall experience.

Landscape architects must consider the following factors when balancing aesthetics and functionality in golf course design:

• Harmony with the natural environment: Golf courses are often built on sensitive environments such as wetlands, forests, and wildlife habitats. Landscape architects must ensure that the course design respects and enhances the natural environment, while minimizing the impact on wildlife and ecosystems.
• Golf course layout and strategy: The layout of the golf course must be strategically designed to challenge players of all skill levels while maintaining a reasonable pace of play. Landscape architects must consider factors such as terrain, wind direction, and sun exposure when designing the course layout.
• Aesthetic appeal: The visual appeal of the golf course is crucial to the overall experience of players and visitors. Landscape architects must create a cohesive and aesthetically pleasing design that incorporates natural features such as trees, water, and vegetation.
• Sustainability: Sustainability is an important consideration in golf course design, as it ensures the long-term viability of the course while minimizing its impact on the environment. Landscape architects must consider factors such as water usage, energy efficiency, and waste management when designing the course.

By balancing aesthetics and functionality, landscape architects can create golf courses that are both challenging and enjoyable for players while also contributing to the overall beauty and sustainability of the environment.

Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainability

As the effects of climate change become more pronounced, landscape architects play a crucial role in designing and building golf courses that are sustainable and resilient to the impacts of climate change. Some of the ways in which landscape architects are adapting to climate change and promoting sustainability in golf course design include:

• Designing courses that use less water: Golf courses are notorious for their high water usage, but landscape architects are designing courses that use less water through the use of drought-tolerant plants, efficient irrigation systems, and natural wetland areas that filter and clean water before it is used on the course.
• Using sustainable materials: Landscape architects are using sustainable materials in the construction of golf courses, such as recycled materials and locally sourced materials that require less transportation and have a lower carbon footprint.
• Restoring natural habitats: Many golf courses were built on previously natural habitats, such as wetlands and forests. Landscape architects are working to restore these habitats and create courses that are more harmonious with the natural environment.
• Designing for extreme weather events: As climate change causes more extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, landscape architects are designing courses that can withstand these events and bounce back quickly. This includes designing courses with permeable surfaces that can absorb heavy rainfall and using drought-tolerant plants that can survive extended dry periods.
• Encouraging wildlife habitat: Golf courses can provide important habitat for wildlife, and landscape architects are designing courses that encourage wildlife to thrive. This includes creating natural areas for birds and other animals to nest and forage, as well as designing courses that avoid the use of harmful pesticides and herbicides.

By adapting to climate change and promoting sustainability in golf course design, landscape architects are helping to create courses that are more resilient, environmentally friendly, and enjoyable for golfers.

Integrating Technology and Innovation

Integrating technology and innovation in golf course design is a key challenge for landscape architects. The use of advanced technologies and innovative design strategies can enhance the golfing experience and create unique, sustainable golf courses.

Some of the ways in which landscape architects integrate technology and innovation in golf course design include:

• Golf simulators: Golf simulators use advanced technology to create an accurate simulation of a golf course, allowing players to practice and improve their skills without physically being on the course. Landscape architects can incorporate golf simulators into the design of golf courses to enhance the player experience and provide an alternative to traditional practice facilities.
• Green roofs: Green roofs are becoming increasingly popular in golf course design as a way to integrate sustainable design strategies. Landscape architects can incorporate green roofs into the design of golf courses to reduce stormwater runoff, improve air quality, and provide insulation for buildings.
• Drone technology: Drones can be used by landscape architects to capture aerial images and data of golf courses, allowing for more accurate measurements and better design decisions. This technology can also be used to monitor the growth and health of turf and other vegetation on the course.
• 3D printing: 3D printing technology can be used by landscape architects to create models and prototypes of golf course features, such as bunkers and greens. This technology allows for more accurate and efficient design and construction of golf courses.
• Sustainable materials: Landscape architects can use innovative materials in the design and construction of golf courses to create sustainable, low-maintenance courses. Examples of sustainable materials include recycled rubber, which can be used for course surfaces, and natural materials, such as stone and wood, which can be used for course features like bunkers and bridges.

By integrating technology and innovation into golf course design, landscape architects can create unique, sustainable golf courses that provide an enjoyable and challenging experience for players while minimizing the impact on the environment.

The Importance of Landscape Architects in Golf Course Design and Construction

Landscape architects play a crucial role in the design and construction of golf courses. They are responsible for creating a unique and challenging golf course that meets the needs of golfers while also preserving the natural environment. The following are some of the reasons why landscape architects are so important in golf course design and construction:

Understanding the Site

Landscape architects are trained to analyze and understand the site where the golf course will be built. They take into account the topography, soil, vegetation, and water resources of the site to determine the best layout for the course. This analysis helps them to create a golf course that is both challenging and sustainable.

Creating a Unique Design

Landscape architects are responsible for creating a unique design for each golf course. They consider the preferences of the golf course owner and the needs of the golfers when designing the course. They also consider the surrounding landscape and the natural features of the site to create a course that is visually appealing and challenging.

Preserving the Environment

Landscape architects are committed to preserving the natural environment. They design golf courses that are sustainable and that minimize the impact on the environment. They use techniques such as reforestation, erosion control, and stormwater management to ensure that the golf course is environmentally friendly.

Collaborating with Other Professionals

Landscape architects work closely with other professionals such as engineers, golf course architects, and contractors to ensure that the golf course is built to the highest standards. They collaborate with these professionals to ensure that the course is built on time, within budget, and to the highest standards of quality.

In conclusion, landscape architects play a vital role in the design and construction of golf courses. They are responsible for creating a unique and challenging course that meets the needs of golfers while also preserving the natural environment. Their expertise in analyzing sites, creating unique designs, preserving the environment, and collaborating with other professionals makes them an essential part of the golf course design and construction process.

FAQs

1. What is the role of a landscape architect in designing and building a golf course?

A landscape architect plays a critical role in designing and building a golf course. They are responsible for creating a design that not only meets the functional requirements of the golf course but also enhances the natural beauty of the site. This involves considering factors such as topography, soil conditions, vegetation, and water features. The landscape architect will work closely with the golf course architect and other stakeholders to ensure that the design meets their needs and is environmentally sustainable.

2. Do landscape architects build golf courses themselves?

Landscape architects do not typically build golf courses themselves. Instead, they work with contractors and construction teams to oversee the construction process and ensure that the design is implemented correctly. They may be involved in selecting materials, grading, drainage, and other aspects of construction to ensure that the final product meets their design specifications.

3. What skills do landscape architects need to have to design and build golf courses?

Landscape architects need to have a range of skills to design and build golf courses. They must have a strong understanding of design principles, including layout, scale, proportion, and balance. They must also be knowledgeable about the environmental and ecological factors that impact golf course design, such as soil and water management. In addition, landscape architects must be able to work collaboratively with other professionals, including golf course architects, engineers, and contractors. They must also be able to communicate their design vision effectively to clients and stakeholders.

4. How long does it take to design and build a golf course?

The amount of time it takes to design and build a golf course can vary depending on the size and complexity of the project. However, it is not uncommon for the design and construction process to take several months to a year or more. The design phase may involve several rounds of revisions and feedback from stakeholders, while the construction phase may be impacted by weather conditions and other factors.

5. What is the cost of designing and building a golf course?

The cost of designing and building a golf course can vary widely depending on the size and complexity of the project. Factors that can impact the cost include the location of the site, the scope of the design, and the materials and construction methods used. It is important to work with a landscape architect and other professionals to develop a detailed budget and timeline for the project to ensure that it stays on track and within budget.

How to Build a Golf Course, explained by Sand Valley Resort’s Michael and Chris Keiser